Class: PgQuery

Inherits:
Object
  • Object
show all
Defined in:
lib/pg_query/node_types.rb,
lib/pg_query/parse.rb,
lib/pg_query/deparse.rb,
lib/pg_query/version.rb,
lib/pg_query/deep_dup.rb,
lib/pg_query/truncate.rb,
lib/pg_query/param_refs.rb,
lib/pg_query/treewalker.rb,
lib/pg_query/fingerprint.rb,
lib/pg_query/parse_error.rb,
lib/pg_query/filter_columns.rb,
lib/pg_query/deparse/interval.rb,
lib/pg_query/legacy_parsetree.rb,
lib/pg_query/deparse/alter_table.rb

Overview

rubocop:disable Style/ConstantName

Defined Under Namespace

Modules: Deparse Classes: FingerprintSubHash, ParseError, PossibleTruncation

Constant Summary collapse

VERSION = 
'0.13.2'.freeze
A_TRUNCATED = 
'A_Truncated'.freeze
A_ARRAY_EXPR =

NODE TYPES

'A_ArrayExpr'.freeze
A_CONST = 
'A_Const'.freeze
A_EXPR = 
'A_Expr'.freeze
A_INDICES = 
'A_Indices'.freeze
A_INDIRECTION = 
'A_Indirection'.freeze
A_STAR = 
'A_Star'.freeze
ACCESS_PRIV = 
'AccessPriv'.freeze
ALIAS = 
'Alias'.freeze
ALTER_TABLE_CMD = 
'AlterTableCmd'.freeze
ALTER_TABLE_STMT = 
'AlterTableStmt'.freeze
BIT_STRING = 
'BitString'.freeze
BOOL_EXPR = 
'BoolExpr'.freeze
BOOLEAN_TEST = 
'BooleanTest'.freeze
CASE_EXPR = 
'CaseExpr'.freeze
CASE_WHEN = 
'CaseWhen'.freeze
CHECK_POINT_STMT = 
'CheckPointStmt'.freeze
CLOSE_PORTAL_STMT = 
'ClosePortalStmt'.freeze
COALESCE_EXPR = 
'CoalesceExpr'.freeze
COLUMN_DEF = 
'ColumnDef'.freeze
COLUMN_REF = 
'ColumnRef'.freeze
COMMON_TABLE_EXPR = 
'CommonTableExpr'.freeze
CONSTRAINT = 
'Constraint'.freeze
COPY_STMT = 
'CopyStmt'.freeze
CREATE_FUNCTION_STMT = 
'CreateFunctionStmt'.freeze
CREATE_SCHEMA_STMT = 
'CreateSchemaStmt'.freeze
CREATE_STMT = 
'CreateStmt'.freeze
CREATE_TABLE_AS_STMT = 
'CreateTableAsStmt'.freeze
CREATE_TRIG_STMT = 
'CreateTrigStmt'.freeze
DEALLOCATE_STMT = 
'DeallocateStmt'.freeze
DECLARE_CURSOR_STMT = 
'DeclareCursorStmt'.freeze
DEF_ELEM = 
'DefElem'.freeze
DELETE_STMT = 
'DeleteStmt'.freeze
DROP_STMT = 
'DropStmt'.freeze
EXECUTE_STMT = 
'ExecuteStmt'.freeze
EXPLAIN_STMT = 
'ExplainStmt'.freeze
FETCH_STMT = 
'FetchStmt'.freeze
FLOAT = 
'Float'.freeze
FUNC_CALL = 
'FuncCall'.freeze
FUNCTION_PARAMETER = 
'FunctionParameter'.freeze
GRANT_ROLE_STMT = 
'GrantRoleStmt'.freeze
GRANT_STMT = 
'GrantStmt'.freeze
INDEX_ELEM = 
'IndexElem'.freeze
INDEX_STMT = 
'IndexStmt'.freeze
INSERT_STMT = 
'InsertStmt'.freeze
INT_LIST = 
'IntList'.freeze
INTEGER = 
'Integer'.freeze
INTO_CLAUSE = 
'IntoClause'.freeze
JOIN_EXPR = 
'JoinExpr'.freeze
LOCK_STMT = 
'LockStmt'.freeze
LOCKING_CLAUSE = 
'LockingClause'.freeze
NULL = 
'Null'.freeze
NULL_TEST = 
'NullTest'.freeze
OID_LIST = 
'OidList'.freeze
PARAM_REF = 
'ParamRef'.freeze
PREPARE_STMT = 
'PrepareStmt'.freeze
RANGE_FUNCTION = 
'RangeFunction'.freeze
RANGE_SUBSELECT = 
'RangeSubselect'.freeze
RANGE_VAR = 
'RangeVar'.freeze
REFRESH_MAT_VIEW_STMT = 
'RefreshMatViewStmt'.freeze
RENAME_STMT = 
'RenameStmt'.freeze
RES_TARGET = 
'ResTarget'.freeze
ROLE_SPEC = 
'RoleSpec'.freeze
ROW_EXPR = 
'RowExpr'.freeze
RULE_STMT = 
'RuleStmt'.freeze
SELECT_STMT = 
'SelectStmt'.freeze
SET_TO_DEFAULT = 
'SetToDefault'.freeze
SORT_BY = 
'SortBy'.freeze
STRING = 
'String'.freeze
'SubLink'.freeze
TRANSACTION_STMT = 
'TransactionStmt'.freeze
TRUNCATE_STMT = 
'TruncateStmt'.freeze
TYPE_CAST = 
'TypeCast'.freeze
TYPE_NAME = 
'TypeName'.freeze
UPDATE_STMT = 
'UpdateStmt'.freeze
VACUUM_STMT = 
'VacuumStmt'.freeze
VARIABLE_SET_STMT = 
'VariableSetStmt'.freeze
VARIABLE_SHOW_STMT = 
'VariableShowStmt'.freeze
VIEW_STMT = 
'ViewStmt'.freeze
WINDOW_DEF = 
'WindowDef'.freeze
WITH_CLAUSE = 
'WithClause'.freeze
COLS_FIELD =

FIELDS

'cols'.freeze
FROM_CLAUSE_FIELD = 
'fromClause'.freeze
RELPERSISTENCE_FIELD = 
'relpersistence'.freeze
REXPR_FIELD = 
'rexpr'.freeze
TARGET_LIST_FIELD = 
'targetList'.freeze
VALUES_LISTS_FIELD = 
'valuesLists'.freeze
CONSTR_TYPE_NULL =

ENUMS

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CONSTR_TYPE_NOTNULL =

not standard SQL, but a lot of people expect it

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CONSTR_TYPE_DEFAULT = 
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CONSTR_TYPE_CHECK = 
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CONSTR_TYPE_PRIMARY = 
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CONSTR_TYPE_UNIQUE = 
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CONSTR_TYPE_EXCLUSION = 
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CONSTR_TYPE_FOREIGN = 
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CONSTR_TYPE_ATTR_DEFERRABLE =

attributes for previous constraint node

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CONSTR_TYPE_ATTR_NOT_DEFERRABLE = 
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CONSTR_TYPE_ATTR_DEFERRED = 
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CONSTR_TYPE_ATTR_IMMEDIATE = 
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OBJECT_TYPE_INDEX = 
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OBJECT_TYPE_RULE = 
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OBJECT_TYPE_SCHEMA = 
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OBJECT_TYPE_TABLE = 
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OBJECT_TYPE_TRIGGER = 
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OBJECT_TYPE_VIEW = 
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BOOL_EXPR_AND = 
0
BOOL_EXPR_OR = 
1
BOOL_EXPR_NOT = 
2
BOOLEAN_TEST_TRUE = 
0
BOOLEAN_TEST_NOT_TRUE = 
1
BOOLEAN_TEST_FALSE = 
2
BOOLEAN_TEST_NOT_FALSE = 
3
BOOLEAN_TEST_UNKNOWN = 
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BOOLEAN_TEST_NOT_UNKNOWN = 
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AEXPR_OP =

normal operator

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AEXPR_OP_ANY =

scalar op ANY (array)

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AEXPR_OP_ALL =

scalar op ALL (array)

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AEXPR_DISTINCT =

IS DISTINCT FROM - name must be “=”

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AEXPR_NULLIF =

NULLIF - name must be “=”

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AEXPR_OF =

IS [NOT] OF - name must be “=” or “<>”

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AEXPR_IN =
NOT

IN - name must be “=” or “<>”

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AEXPR_LIKE =
NOT

LIKE - name must be “~~” or “!~~”

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AEXPR_ILIKE =
NOT

ILIKE - name must be “~~*” or “!~~*”

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AEXPR_SIMILAR =
NOT

SIMILAR - name must be “~” or “!~”

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AEXPR_BETWEEN =

name must be “BETWEEN”

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AEXPR_NOT_BETWEEN =

name must be “NOT BETWEEN”

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AEXPR_BETWEEN_SYM =

name must be “BETWEEN SYMMETRIC”

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AEXPR_NOT_BETWEEN_SYM =

name must be “NOT BETWEEN SYMMETRIC”

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AEXPR_PAREN =

nameless dummy node for parentheses

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TRANS_STMT_BEGIN = 
0
TRANS_STMT_START =

semantically identical to BEGIN

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TRANS_STMT_COMMIT = 
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TRANS_STMT_ROLLBACK = 
3
TRANS_STMT_SAVEPOINT = 
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TRANS_STMT_RELEASE = 
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TRANS_STMT_ROLLBACK_TO = 
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TRANS_STMT_PREPARE = 
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TRANS_STMT_COMMIT_PREPARED = 
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TRANS_STMT_ROLLBACK_PREPARED = 
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0
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LCS_NONE =

no such clause - only used in PlanRowMark

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LCS_FORKEYSHARE =

FOR KEY SHARE

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LCS_FORSHARE =

FOR SHARE

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LCS_FORNOKEYUPDATE =

FOR NO KEY UPDATE

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LCS_FORUPDATE =

FOR UPDATE

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AT_AddColumn =

add column

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AT_AddColumnRecurse =

internal to commands/tablecmds.c

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AT_AddColumnToView =

implicitly via CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW

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AT_ColumnDefault =

alter column default

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AT_DropNotNull =

alter column drop not null

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AT_SetNotNull =

alter column set not null

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AT_SetStatistics =

alter column set statistics

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AT_SetOptions =

alter column set ( options )

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AT_ResetOptions =

alter column reset ( options )

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AT_SetStorage =

alter column set storage

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AT_DropColumn =

drop column

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AT_DropColumnRecurse =

internal to commands/tablecmds.c

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AT_AddIndex =

add index

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AT_ReAddIndex =

internal to commands/tablecmds.c

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AT_AddConstraint =

add constraint

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AT_AddConstraintRecurse =

internal to commands/tablecmds.c

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AT_ReAddConstraint =

internal to commands/tablecmds.c

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AT_AlterConstraint =

alter constraint

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AT_ValidateConstraint =

validate constraint

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AT_ValidateConstraintRecurse =

internal to commands/tablecmds.c

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AT_ProcessedConstraint =

pre-processed add constraint (local in parser/parse_utilcmd.c)

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AT_AddIndexConstraint =

add constraint using existing index

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AT_DropConstraint =

drop constraint

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AT_DropConstraintRecurse =

internal to commands/tablecmds.c

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AT_ReAddComment =

internal to commands/tablecmds.c

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AT_AlterColumnType =

alter column type

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AT_AlterColumnGenericOptions =

alter column OPTIONS (…)

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AT_ChangeOwner =

change owner

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AT_ClusterOn =

CLUSTER ON

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AT_DropCluster =

SET WITHOUT CLUSTER

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AT_SetLogged =

SET LOGGED

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AT_SetUnLogged =

SET UNLOGGED

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AT_AddOids =

SET WITH OIDS

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AT_AddOidsRecurse =

internal to commands/tablecmds.c

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AT_DropOids =

SET WITHOUT OIDS

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AT_SetTableSpace =

SET TABLESPACE

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AT_SetRelOptions =

SET (…) – AM specific parameters

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AT_ResetRelOptions =

RESET (…) – AM specific parameters

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AT_ReplaceRelOptions =

replace reloption list in its entirety

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AT_EnableTrig =

ENABLE TRIGGER name

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AT_EnableAlwaysTrig =

ENABLE ALWAYS TRIGGER name

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AT_EnableReplicaTrig =

ENABLE REPLICA TRIGGER name

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AT_DisableTrig =

DISABLE TRIGGER name

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AT_EnableTrigAll =

ENABLE TRIGGER ALL

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AT_DisableTrigAll =

DISABLE TRIGGER ALL

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AT_EnableTrigUser =

ENABLE TRIGGER USER

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AT_DisableTrigUser =

DISABLE TRIGGER USER

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AT_EnableRule =

ENABLE RULE name

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AT_EnableAlwaysRule =

ENABLE ALWAYS RULE name

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AT_EnableReplicaRule =

ENABLE REPLICA RULE name

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AT_DisableRule =

DISABLE RULE name

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AT_AddInherit =

INHERIT parent

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AT_DropInherit =

NO INHERIT parent

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AT_AddOf =

OF <type_name>

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AT_DropOf =

NOT OF

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AT_ReplicaIdentity =

REPLICA IDENTITY

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AT_EnableRowSecurity =

ENABLE ROW SECURITY

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AT_DisableRowSecurity =

DISABLE ROW SECURITY

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AT_ForceRowSecurity =

FORCE ROW SECURITY

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AT_NoForceRowSecurity =

NO FORCE ROW SECURITY

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AT_GenericOptions =

OPTIONS (…)

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Instance Attribute Summary collapse

Class Method Summary collapse

Instance Method Summary collapse

Constructor Details

#initialize(query, tree, warnings = []) ⇒ PgQuery

Returns a new instance of PgQuery.



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# File 'lib/pg_query/parse.rb', line 26

def initialize(query, tree, warnings = [])
  @query = query
  @tree = tree
  @warnings = warnings
end

Instance Attribute Details

#query ⇒ Object (readonly)

Returns the value of attribute query.



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# File 'lib/pg_query/parse.rb', line 22

def query
  @query
end

#tree ⇒ Object (readonly)

Returns the value of attribute tree.



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# File 'lib/pg_query/parse.rb', line 23

def tree
  @tree
end

#warnings ⇒ Object (readonly)

Returns the value of attribute warnings.



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# File 'lib/pg_query/parse.rb', line 24

def warnings
  @warnings
end

Class Method Details

._raw_parse ⇒ Object 



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# File 'ext/pg_query/pg_query_ruby.c', line 7

VALUE pg_query_ruby_parse(VALUE self, VALUE input);

.fingerprint ⇒ Object 



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# File 'ext/pg_query/pg_query_ruby.c', line 9

VALUE pg_query_ruby_fingerprint(VALUE self, VALUE input);

.normalize ⇒ Object 



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# File 'ext/pg_query/pg_query_ruby.c', line 8

VALUE pg_query_ruby_normalize(VALUE self, VALUE input);

.parse(query) ⇒ Object 



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# File 'lib/pg_query/parse.rb', line 4

def self.parse(query)
  tree, stderr = _raw_parse(query)

  begin
    tree = JSON.parse(tree, max_nesting: 1000)
  rescue JSON::ParserError
    raise ParseError.new('Failed to parse JSON', __FILE__, __LINE__, -1)
  end

  warnings = []
  stderr.each_line do |line|
    next unless line[/^WARNING/]
    warnings << line.strip
  end

  PgQuery.new(query, tree, warnings)
end

Instance Method Details

#aliases ⇒ Object 



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# File 'lib/pg_query/parse.rb', line 53

def aliases
  load_tables_and_aliases! if @aliases.nil?
  @aliases
end

#cte_names ⇒ Object 



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# File 'lib/pg_query/parse.rb', line 48

def cte_names
  load_tables_and_aliases! if @cte_names.nil?
  @cte_names
end

#ddl_tables ⇒ Object 



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# File 'lib/pg_query/parse.rb', line 44

def ddl_tables
  tables_with_types.select { |t| t[:type] == :ddl }.map { |t| t[:table] }
end

#deep_dup(obj) ⇒ Object 



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# File 'lib/pg_query/deep_dup.rb', line 2

def deep_dup(obj)
  case obj
  when Hash
    obj.each_with_object(obj.dup) do |(key, value), hash|
      hash[deep_dup(key)] = deep_dup(value)
    end
  when Array
    obj.map { |it| deep_dup(it) }
  when NilClass, FalseClass, TrueClass, Symbol, Numeric
    obj # Can't be duplicated
  else
    obj.dup
  end
end

#deparse(tree = @tree) ⇒ Object

Reconstruct all of the parsed queries into their original form



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# File 'lib/pg_query/deparse.rb', line 5

def deparse(tree = @tree)
  tree.map do |item|
    Deparse.from(item)
  end.join('; ')
end

#dml_tables ⇒ Object 



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# File 'lib/pg_query/parse.rb', line 40

def dml_tables
  tables_with_types.select { |t| t[:type] == :dml }.map { |t| t[:table] }
end

#filter_columns ⇒ Object

Returns a list of columns that the query filters by - this excludes the target list, but includes things like JOIN condition and WHERE clause.

Note: This also traverses into sub-selects.



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# File 'lib/pg_query/filter_columns.rb', line 6

def filter_columns # rubocop:disable Metrics/CyclomaticComplexity
  load_tables_and_aliases! if @aliases.nil?

  # Get condition items from the parsetree
  statements = @tree.dup
  condition_items = []
  filter_columns = []
  loop do
    statement = statements.shift
    if statement
      if statement[SELECT_STMT]
        case statement[SELECT_STMT]['op']
        when 0
          if statement[SELECT_STMT][FROM_CLAUSE_FIELD]
            # FROM subselects
            statement[SELECT_STMT][FROM_CLAUSE_FIELD].each do |item|
              next unless item['RangeSubselect']
              statements << item['RangeSubselect']['subquery']
            end

            # JOIN ON conditions
            condition_items += conditions_from_join_clauses(statement[SELECT_STMT][FROM_CLAUSE_FIELD])
          end

          # WHERE clause
          condition_items << statement[SELECT_STMT]['whereClause'] if statement[SELECT_STMT]['whereClause']

          # CTEs
          if statement[SELECT_STMT]['withClause']
            statement[SELECT_STMT]['withClause']['WithClause']['ctes'].each do |item|
              statements << item['CommonTableExpr']['ctequery'] if item['CommonTableExpr']
            end
          end
        when 1
          statements << statement[SELECT_STMT]['larg'] if statement[SELECT_STMT]['larg']
          statements << statement[SELECT_STMT]['rarg'] if statement[SELECT_STMT]['rarg']
        end
      elsif statement['UpdateStmt']
        condition_items << statement['UpdateStmt']['whereClause'] if statement['UpdateStmt']['whereClause']
      elsif statement['DeleteStmt']
        condition_items << statement['DeleteStmt']['whereClause'] if statement['DeleteStmt']['whereClause']
      end
    end

    # Process both JOIN and WHERE conditions here
    next_item = condition_items.shift
    if next_item
      if next_item[A_EXPR]
        %w[lexpr rexpr].each do |side|
          expr = next_item.values[0][side]
          next unless expr && expr.is_a?(Hash)
          condition_items << expr
        end
      elsif next_item[BOOL_EXPR]
        condition_items += next_item[BOOL_EXPR]['args']
      elsif next_item[ROW_EXPR]
        condition_items += next_item[ROW_EXPR]['args']
      elsif next_item[COLUMN_REF]
        column, table = next_item[COLUMN_REF]['fields'].map { |f| f['String']['str'] }.reverse
        filter_columns << [@aliases[table] || table, column]
      elsif next_item[NULL_TEST]
        condition_items << next_item[NULL_TEST]['arg']
      elsif next_item[BOOLEAN_TEST]
        condition_items << next_item[BOOLEAN_TEST]['arg']
      elsif next_item[FUNC_CALL]
        # FIXME: This should actually be extracted as a funccall and be compared with those indices
        condition_items += next_item[FUNC_CALL]['args'] if next_item[FUNC_CALL]['args']
      elsif next_item[SUB_LINK]
        condition_items << next_item[SUB_LINK]['testexpr']
        statements << next_item[SUB_LINK]['subselect']
      end
    end

    break if statements.empty? && condition_items.empty?
  end

  filter_columns.uniq
end

#fingerprint ⇒ Object 



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# File 'lib/pg_query/fingerprint.rb', line 4

def fingerprint
  hash = Digest::SHA1.new
  fingerprint_tree(hash)
  format('%02x', FINGERPRINT_VERSION) + hash.hexdigest
end

#param_refs ⇒ Object

rubocop:disable Metrics/CyclomaticComplexity



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# File 'lib/pg_query/param_refs.rb', line 2

def param_refs # rubocop:disable Metrics/CyclomaticComplexity
  results = []

  treewalker! @tree do |_, _, v|
    next unless v.is_a?(Hash)

    if v[PARAM_REF]
      results << { 'location' => v[PARAM_REF]['location'],
                   'length' => param_ref_length(v[PARAM_REF]) }
    elsif v[TYPE_CAST]
      next unless v[TYPE_CAST]['arg'] && v[TYPE_CAST]['typeName']

      p = v[TYPE_CAST]['arg'].delete(PARAM_REF)
      t = v[TYPE_CAST]['typeName'].delete(TYPE_NAME)
      next unless p && t

      location = p['location']
      typeloc  = t['location']
      typename = t['names']
      length   = param_ref_length(p)

      if typeloc < location
        length += location - typeloc
        location = typeloc
      end

      results << { 'location' => location, 'length' => length, 'typename' => typename }
    end
  end

  results.sort_by! { |r| r['location'] }
  results
end

#parsetree ⇒ Object

Legacy parsetree from 0.7 and earlier versions - migrate to “tree” format if you can



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# File 'lib/pg_query/legacy_parsetree.rb', line 3

def parsetree # rubocop:disable Metrics/CyclomaticComplexity
  @parsetree ||= transform_nodes!(@tree) do |node|
    key = node.keys[0]
    new_key = LEGACY_NODE_NAMES[key] || key.upcase

    case key
    when A_CONST
      transform_parsetree_a_const(node)
    when A_EXPR
      transform_string_list(node[A_EXPR]['name'])
      node[key].delete('kind')
    when COLUMN_REF
      transform_string_list(node[COLUMN_REF]['fields'])
    when CREATE_FUNCTION_STMT
      transform_string_list(node[CREATE_FUNCTION_STMT]['funcname'])
    when CREATE_TRIG_STMT
      transform_string_list(node[CREATE_TRIG_STMT]['funcname'])
    when CONSTRAINT
      node[CONSTRAINT]['contype'] = LEGACY_CONSTRAINT_TYPES[node[CONSTRAINT]['contype']]
      transform_string_list(node[CONSTRAINT]['keys'])
    when COPY_STMT
      transform_string_list(node[COPY_STMT]['attlist'])
    when DEF_ELEM
      node[DEF_ELEM]['arg'] = node[DEF_ELEM]['arg'][INTEGER]['ival'] if node[DEF_ELEM]['arg'].is_a?(Hash) && node[DEF_ELEM]['arg'].keys[0] == INTEGER
      node[DEF_ELEM]['arg'] = node[DEF_ELEM]['arg'][STRING]['str'] if node[DEF_ELEM]['arg'].is_a?(Hash) && node[DEF_ELEM]['arg'].keys[0] == STRING
      transform_string_list(node[DEF_ELEM]['arg']) if node[DEF_ELEM]['arg'].is_a?(Array)
    when DROP_STMT
      node[DROP_STMT]['objects'].each { |obj| transform_string_list(obj) }
    when FUNC_CALL
      transform_string_list(node[FUNC_CALL]['funcname'])
    when GRANT_ROLE_STMT
      transform_string_list(node[GRANT_ROLE_STMT]['grantee_roles'])
    when TYPE_NAME
      transform_string_list(node[TYPE_NAME]['names'])
    end

    node[new_key] = node.delete(key)
  end
end

#select_tables ⇒ Object 



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# File 'lib/pg_query/parse.rb', line 36

def select_tables
  tables_with_types.select { |t| t[:type] == :select }.map { |t| t[:table] }
end

#tables ⇒ Object 



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# File 'lib/pg_query/parse.rb', line 32

def tables
  tables_with_types.map { |t| t[:table] }
end

#tables_with_types ⇒ Object 



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# File 'lib/pg_query/parse.rb', line 58

def tables_with_types
  load_tables_and_aliases! if @tables.nil?
  @tables
end

#truncate(max_length) ⇒ Object

Truncates the query string to be below the specified length, first trying to omit less important parts of the query, and only then cutting off the end.



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# File 'lib/pg_query/truncate.rb', line 8

def truncate(max_length)
  output = deparse(@tree)

  # Early exit if we're already below the max length
  return output if output.size <= max_length

  truncations = find_possible_truncations

  # Truncate the deepest possible truncation that is the longest first
  truncations.sort_by! { |t| [-t.location.size, -t.length] }

  tree = deep_dup(@tree)
  truncations.each do |truncation|
    next if truncation.length < 3

    find_tree_location(tree, truncation.location) do |expr, k|
      expr[k] = { A_TRUNCATED => nil }
      expr[k] = [expr[k]] if truncation.is_array
    end

    output = deparse(tree)
    return output if output.size <= max_length
  end

  # We couldn't do a proper smart truncation, so we need a hard cut-off
  output[0..max_length - 4] + '...'
end